Grammar Archives - Plaid Swan

April 2, 2018

Let’s Get Picky: the Em Dash, the En Dash, and the Hyphen

My teacher in ninth grade English, Mrs. Wood, was picky. The first written assignment I turned in to her was returned to me with a low grade because I had not used 66s and 99s for my quotation marks (when you type in a word processing program, notice the opening and closing quote symbols – they’re like little 66s and 99s). Because we do not handwrite much anymore, that rule isn’t so important to know because the computer does the work for you. However, other similar rules that may seem picky are good to know. One such rule concerns the two types of dashes and the hyphen. I admit that I haven’t been meticulous about the distinctions among the three, but knowing the differences can aid in reader comprehension.

The Em Dash

The em dash is so labeled because it is the largest of the three and is the width of the letter m. Sources disagree about whether there should be a space before and after this dash, so refer to your style manual of choice (such as AP Style, APA Style, MLA Style, or Chicago Style). Most sources suggest that there be no extra space before or after. Em dashes are used in place of commas, parentheses, colons, and sometimes even semi-colons. These dashes emphasize a word, phrase, or clause but are also less formal than other punctuation. A writer should limit their use to a maximum of two in a sentence to prevent confusion. They are particularly handy when the phrase that is being highlighted already has commas in it:

Raising a dog requires three things—nourishment, exercise, and love.

Em dashes often indicate a change in topic or thought or add extra information to a sentence:

My brother—a computer genius—decided to be a clergyman.

Numerous methods on a computer keyboard can create this longer dash. First, and the easiest, is just to type two hyphens; the computer will automatically convert the two hyphens into an em dash. Also, you can hold the Alt key and type 0151 on the numeric keypad. You cannot use the numbers on the top row of your keyboard to do this. The next option—if you are using Microsoft Word—is to use the Insert tab at the top of the page, click on the Symbol option in the banner, choose the subset General Punctuation, and click on the em dash symbol. Finally, if you are using a Mac, press Shift-Option and the minus key to use this dash.

The En Dash

This dash is named because it is the width of the letter n and half the width of an em dash. Many people just use a hyphen rather than an en dash because no key on the keyboard easily creates it. Generally, it replaces the word to, expressing a relationship or an inclusive range of values:

Pages 2–25

September 3–October 29

The en dash also can replace the word versus:

The Clinton–Trump debates

Insert it like the em dash by choosing the appropriate symbol from the Symbol charts. Also, similar to the em dash, you can hold the Alt key while typing 0150 on the numeric keypad only.

The Hyphen

Hyphens are the smallest of these three punctuation marks. The hyphen key is on the bottom of a key in the top row of your keyboard between the 0 and =. Hyphenation can be a little tricky and will be the topic of a future blog, but to simplify, know that a hyphen is most used for some compound words such as well-being or off-campus. If you are unsure whether to use a hyphen, look the words up in a dictionary. Also, hyphens are used in numbers that are not inclusive, like Social Security numbers or telephone numbers.

There is one last symbol that might be confusing after all this talk of em and en dashes and hyphens. The minus sign for typesetters is the length of an en dash but thicker and higher. You cannot find the minus sign on most keyboards, so use a hyphen with a space on either side of it (133 – 49). For negative values (e.g., -32°), use a hyphen with one space before it but not after it.

The guidelines for em and en dashes and hyphens here described are in general but will serve well to differentiate among the three. Whether your Mrs. Wood is your teacher, your editor, or your typesetter, it’s not a bad idea to get a little picky and choose correctly.

Diane Repass is a retired tenured assistant professor
from The University of Dubuque and now a beloved
writer for Plaid Swan Inc. She received her M.A. from
The University of Northern Iowa in Cedar Falls, Iowa.

January 29, 2018

Tune Your Tone

“Good job.” These two words can be said in so many ways that completely change their meaning. Imagine someone saying them with enthusiasm so that they are a sincere compliment. Or, they could be sarcastic or accusatory so that the spoken meaning is inescapably altered. Body language, inflection, eye contact affect how the purpose is perceived. In written work, the reader doesn’t have all these clues to determine intended meaning, so the writer has to create a tone through word choice, level of formality, and syntax to clarify the meaning.

Tone in writing is the writer’s attitude toward a subject and the audience. Just like voice inflection changes the meaning of the spoken word, tone affects how the written message will be received. Many words describe the tone of written work: friendly, critical, appreciative, defiant. To create the appropriate tone, the writer should ask him/herself a few fundamental questions:

What is my purpose in writing this?
Who is going to read this? Am I writing to my employer or a fellow employee? Is my audience a general one or a professional group?
What is it that I want my reader to learn from this?
Based on these questions, what tone should I be using? Am I matching the tone to the capabilities of my audience? Am I matching the tone to a specific type of publication (letter, college essay, professional journal, blog)?

Once a writer has determined the tone, the real work begins. The writer should be concerned with word choice. An important consideration should be denotations (dictionary definitions) and connotations (feelings associated with the word). Think about the meanings of the words “thin” and “skinny.” They are similar in meaning, but being thin is a goal of many people, which has a positive connotation, while being skinny has a slightly more negative, undesirable connotation.

Two other choices for words include choosing specific over general words and concrete over abstract words. For example, the word “illness” is a general term, but “stage-four cancer” carries more meaning and heightens sympathy and concern. “Freedom” is an abstract term, but there are so many kinds of freedom, and choosing a more concrete expression, like, “freedom of religion,” can shape the tone. Choosing to use jargon (language that is used by a specific group) can also affect tone depending on the audience. To choose legal jargon or technical jargon for an audience not familiar with the meanings alters the tone completely.

The level of formality is another contributing factor. Formality works on a continuum from informal to formal. Informal language is more personal than formal. It uses slang, contractions, and first or second person (I or you). It is more subjective (deals with opinions and feelings), and it more approximates spoken language. Formal language is more scholarly and professional, and it is more objective. Many readers find it difficult to read, and so writers often choose a medium level of formality to make it palatable to more readers. Longer words and words with Greek and Latin roots are more typical of formal language. For example, these words mean the same thing, but one is more formal than the other:

Formal Informal

Terminate End

Locate Find

Initiate Begin

Establish Set up

Commence Start

Syntax, the way words are organized into sentences, is the third way that tone is conveyed. Active voice (I ate the chicken) vs. passive voice (the chicken was eaten [by me – optional]) rearranges the subject and object in a sentence depending on which is the more important actor or focus of the sentence. While most writing guides discourage the use of the passive voice, it can be more authoritative (the building will be closed at 8:00 p.m. sharp) or more tactful. Another way of using syntax to add to tone is to consider emphasis and subordination. When a writer wants to emphasize a point, he or she will use shorter, more concise sentences. In contrast, to subordinate a point, place it in a compound sentence.

Consider these examples:

Emphasis: Smoking will no longer be permitted in the building. The committee on employee health and safety reached this decision after considering evidence from researchers and physicians on the dangers of second-hand smoke.

Subordination: The committee on employee health and safety has finished considering evidence, and they have reached the decision that smoking will no longer be permitted in the building. (Purdue OWL: Tone in Business Writing)

Finally, a writer can incorporate these suggestions for perfecting the desired tone of a piece.

Use a more neutral tone for negative topics. Take time to become calmer if you’re too angry, and have someone else critique your writing for a tone that is too negative or subjective.
Be sure to give your readers a purpose for reading your work. This creates an incentive to make your reader want to continue reading.
Don’t mix tones and read your work aloud or have someone read it to you to listen for consistency.
Edit, edit, edit.

January 15, 2018

The Ever-Morphing English Language

Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400) was a philosopher, astronomer, bureaucrat, courtier, and diplomat, but he is best remembered today as the author of The Canterbury Tales. For most, his work would not be easy to read as in this example from The Summoner’s Tale:

Freres and feendes been but lyte asonder. (Friars and fiends are seldom far apart.)

English, as with all languages, is in a constant state of change in five principal areas: vocabulary, spelling, definition, pronunciation, and word order or sentence structure. Understanding the causes of these changes can help to recognize language shifts which affect the way we communicate.

Our language is evolving.

Vocabulary is rapidly changing. We need new words to describe technology (buffer, digitize) and products (jeggings). Words like unfriend and tweet weren’t used in the same way fifteen years ago as they are today. Jargon, such as in business (micromanage), and slang (woke – being aware, specifically about current events and cultural issues) introduce many new words.

Spelling has changed most notably over a more extended period. In the 13^th to 16^th centuries, the word doubt was spelled dout, and connection was spelled connexion in the 17^th to mid-20^th centuries. Today’s misspellings may well predict spelling changes of the future, such as in curiosity (misspelling – curiousity) or gist (misspelling – jist).

Enter: Slang Words

We are seeing word definitions change today, especially in slang usage. For example, wicked used to mean something evil, but now it can mean something good. Meat in Old English used to signify solid food, but now it refers to the flesh of animals. Egregious used to mean something remarkably good, but it has changed to indicate something terrible or shocking, possibly due to an ironic use of the word.

Pronunciation shifts are not as easy to identify over the last few years, but looking back about 500 years, we recognize the Great Vowel Shift where about seven significant changes in vowel pronunciation occurred, principally in the long vowels. Many words have had a pronunciation shift over the last few hundred years. Cognizance used to be pronounced without the “g,” and tomb was pronounced with the “b.” Sometimes word sounds get switched around as in wasp (previously waps) or bird (previously brid).

Even sentence structure is changing.

The last central area of change is in word order and sentence structure. In the past, the word not was placed after the verb as in “She likes me not.” Today that sentence would be “She doesn’t like me.” However, a recent change puts a pause into the old order of words and puts the word not at the end again as in “She likes me – NOT!”, a sarcastic comment. If you look at the writings of Chaucer and Shakespeare, you’ll see many odd (for today) arrangements of words. Shakespeare, in particular, liked to play with the order of words, so instead of the usual subject-verb-object order, he would mix things up.

Why all the changes?

The causes of language change are several. Recently, I heard White House Press Secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders say “gonna” repeatedly in a press conference. I don’t doubt that soon, “gonna” will be an acceptable spoken and written word, replacing “going to.” There is a need for efficiency in language, and people take shortcuts frequently, as in dropping the “g” sound from many “-ing” words or substituting “a” for the words have or to in words like coulda, shoulda, wanna, etc.

Borrowing words from other languages is common. For example, English has borrowed the words emoji, sushi, and honcho from Japanese. Environment affects language; things like invasions, colonization, and migration bring change. Rules that are difficult to remember cause change. For example, lie vs. lay and who vs. whom are so difficult that the usage rules may change. There still is a rule about not splitting an infinitive (e.g. putting an adverb between the infinitive to and its verb as in “to thoroughly disagree”), but it seems archaic because it came from a time when people wanted English to be more like Latin, where it’s impossible to split its single word infinitives.

There are countries such as France and Malaysia which have language academies to prescribe how the language should be. Even they have to acknowledge some change because language change is inevitable. Perhaps a better way to look at such changes is that they are invigorating; people are looking for new and better ways to express themselves. Recognizing and accepting that language is in flux can aid in efforts to communicate most effectively and efficiently.

October 9, 2017

Writing: A Gift or a Learned Skill?

National Book Award for Fiction winner Robert Stone contends that “You can take undergraduates and guide them. You can tell them what works and what doesn’t. But unfortunately, you can’t teach anyone to write. It comes from God.” I would disagree; it would be hypocritical of me to agree since I have taught writing off and on since 1969. Whether it be fiction or nonfiction, novel or essay, writers can improve and prosper with experiences that foster creativity and develop an interest in reading/writing; with a knowledgeable, experienced, and creative teacher; and with opportunities and a desire to develop skills.

The background for a competent writer begins at an early age. We all have the capacity to be creative in some way, but that needs to be cultivated when we are young. Giving kids experiences that allow them to express themselves in a variety of ways leads them to choose what triggers are meaningful for them. There are inspiring toys that teach creativity; there are life experiences, such as visits to museums with hands-on activities; or there are playful experiments with materials and words that challenge growing minds. It’s true that children do not have equal opportunities that encourage creativity, but when children reach school age, hopefully, they meet teachers who offer them creativity-building activities.

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From early elementary through college, a skilled teacher can instill a love of writing and reading, which is the foundation for future writers. Assignments that challenge and titillate are essential to building ingenuity. For example, instead of a teacher asking students to write about their weekend, he/she might tell students that there are lovable dragons and fierce dragons, now describe another kind of dragon. Getting students to read means offering them materials that are fun and exciting. From reading through the years of their formal education, students observe techniques in sentence construction, composition structure, and writing techniques, and they can also expand their vocabulary. A competent and creative teacher will not slash a student’s written work to pieces but will find the things that a student does well and on which they can build. A few specific suggestions on techniques that will improve a student’s writing will go further than a paper covered in red corrections.

A final facet of learning to write is opportunity and desire. Young people need opportunities to write that expand across their course curriculum. They should be writing in their history and science classes. They should be writing letters and thank you notes. They should be writing essays and creative fiction. Many students do not like studying grammar and vocabulary, but these should be creatively incorporated into their education. Those with a desire to write will embrace the opportunities and seek outlets for their creative needs.

Pulitzer Prize-winning author Wallace Stegner once said that “writing can be taught—but not to everybody.” So, can anyone become a great writer? Let’s face it: not everyone even wants to write. Among those who like to write, some will show a proclivity to advanced technique and creativity. Can writing skills be developed? Yes, everyone can benefit from studying writing skills, and it’s especially true when determination and desire are present.

www.bestanimations.com

September 4, 2017

Have You Got Style?

In high school and college, even as an English major, when I wrote, I was blissfully ignorant of such things as style manuals like APA, MLA, Chicago Style, or AP. We had English textbooks that gave us the rules of grammar, and teachers handed out sheets that illustrated how to write a bibliography or footnote. There was some variance in the rules from school to school and from teacher to teacher, but instructors allowed for a little inconsistency. I know I’m dating myself by confessing this, but I am wondering if there aren’t a few out there who have had similar experiences. When I got to graduate school, the honeymoon was over, and the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) became my bible. I was so grateful that at the start of my program I was required to take a short course in the use of this style manual. I thought it might help to look at what a style manual is, what style manual should a writer choose, and what the major differences are between some of the more commonly used manuals.

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What are style manuals?

Wikipedia, which has its own style manual, gives a general definition of these reference guides:

A style guide (or manual of style) is a set of standards for the writing and design of documents, either for general use or for a specific publication, organization, or field. . . . A style guide establishes and enforces style to improve communication.

The topics covered are broad and include understanding mechanics (punctuation, spelling, capitalization, etc.), crediting sources, and creating a reference list or works cited page. There will be information on developing a format, as well as avoiding plagiarism and bias. Besides students, researchers and journalists should follow a guide written for their disciplines or required by their employers. Emphasis should be made that these are style guides, not grammar rules; there will be differences from manual to manual. The goal is consistency within a document, from document to document, and from writer to writer within an organization.

How does one choose which manual to use?

There are a plethora of style guides, and Wikipedia lists many of them. They are often based on the area of study/expertise of that writer, or they are connected to a particular profession or a single business. In higher education, a professor may announce which manual to use, like APA (for behavioral or social sciences), MLA (Modern Language Association, for the arts and humanities), or Chicago Manual of Style (for academic publishing). Employers might adhere to the guidelines in AP style (Associated Press Stylebook, for use in journalism) or Apple Publications Style Guide (for the computer industry).

Some businesses have their own in-house manuals, which may be combinations of several other reference books. Jean Ives at Houghton Mifflin Harcourt says that “They have their own style guides (for science, math, marketing, assessments, etc.), and they’re based largely on Chicago Manual of Style.” A writer must first ask his/her employer or professor which one is recommended. If there is none, then the writer must choose according to discipline or familiarity to assure consistency.

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What are some of the differences found in style manuals?

The biggest differences seem to come in the format of citations and references. For example, in using APA, only the references that have been cited are at the end of a piece of writing, listed on a “References” page, while MLA calls it a “Works Cited” page. MLA lists authors’ names as the last name, then the first name. APA uses the last name, then the first name’s initial. These may seem picky, but each contributes to that consistency mentioned earlier. Quotes that are 40 words or more are indented five spaces in APA, while MLA indents quotations that are four lines or longer 10 spaces. There has long been a debate about the use of the serial comma (the comma used before a word like “and” in a series of items, e.g., Tom, Dick, and Harry). Chicago Style recommends using that last comma, but AP suggests its use only for clarity such as in this classic example: I’d like to thank my parents, Ayn Rand and God. The lack of a serial comma makes it sound like Ayn Rand is my mother, and God is my father.

The first time someone uses a style manual is difficult. The writer spends much time searching for the suggested guideline. Some writers develop two or three-page “cheat sheets,” which list some of the more confusing or less memorable suggestions for quicker reference. My friend at Houghton Mifflin Harcourt gives this advice to writers, “I am a strong proponent of using some style guide, and I’m not partial to a particular one.” Whenever an author is writing for a new evaluator, he/she should ask the question: which style manual do you use?

www.giphy.com

May 31, 2017

Maddening Word Pairs

I have taught junior and senior high as well as college level English classes. At every level you find similar mistakes with confusing word pairs. Correcting essays could be frustrating because no matter how many times I addressed certain errors in class, the same errors kept popping up. I learned to temper my frustration by reminding myself that there were bigger issues to address, but to this day I can still cringe when I see certain mistakes made by skilled writers. In a last ditch effort to alleviate some of the pain, let’s address five of my “favorites.”

A lot vs. Alot vs. Allot

www.deathbattle.wikia.com

I know this group is not a pair, but the number one error I saw, particularly on the lower levels, was the use of alot. There is no such word as alot. It’s that simple; it is always written as two words meaning “a large, non-countable quantity of something.” The phrase is quite informal, and experienced writers avoid the phrase when writing more formally. My computer wants to correct this error, so maybe students and writers now don’t make this mistake as often anymore. The word allot means –

to divide or distribute by share or portion; distribute or parcel out; apportion: to allot the available farmland among the settlers.
to appropriate for a special purpose: to allot money for a park.
to assign as a portion; set apart; dedicate. (from Dictionary.com

Loose vs. Lose

Loose (with an s sound) means “anything that is free from an attachment or confinement” while lose (with a z sound) means “to be deprived of or unable to find something” (though one dictionary site I checked listed 26 meanings for this word). I love mnemonic devices which are used to assist your memory. One that works for this pair is losing an O to spell lose.

www.ifunny.co

Principal vs. Principle

I learned a mnemonic device many years ago to help with these two. Principal is often a person, the head of a school, and he/she is your “pal.” There are other principals: the lead actor in a play, the first player of a division of instruments in an orchestra, or the person directly responsible for a crime. Principle is “a general law or truth.”

www.huffingtonpost.com

A While vs. Awhile

This confusing pair is apparently confusing to even the experts. My Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary says that many feel that awhile is not even a word; it is a mistake to use it. Others distinguish the two choices as article-noun (a while) and adverb (awhile). It is probably another example of how English and its rules are changing. While I found one source that says a while can also be an adverb, it is probably safest to stick with the noun vs. adverb definition. A while is a general term meaning “a length of time;” try replacing it with another noun that specifies a length of time to determine if you need the two-word noun phrase. Awhile means “for a time;” again, try replacing it with another adverb.

It has been a while since I’ve seen my brother.

It has been a year since I’ve seen my brother.

I sat awhile contemplating my future.

I sat briefly contemplating my future.

All Right vs. Alright

Another example of language in flux is this pair. Poor alright has frequently been maligned and is not considered a word by many. However, there is growing support for its use meaning “satisfactory” because it is so commonly used. You can’t go wrong by consistently using the two-word form, all right. Similar words that have gone through the same transition are all ready vs. already and all together vs. altogether, with both choices winning a place in the English language.

www.giphy.com

There are hundreds of examples of word pairs that can be maddening and cause writers to agonize over the choices. Fortunately, today we have the internet to check out the distinctions, and we also have spelling and grammar checkers to guide in such decisions. It is still helpful to try to take advantage of mnemonic devices and other memory helpers to put the correct choices in your mind.

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May 8, 2017

Putting Modifiers in Their Place

“We saw dinosaurs on a field trip to the natural history museum.” (Who knew that dinosaurs liked field trips?)

“Flying over the African landscape, the elephant herd looked majestic.” (I never knew elephants could fly.)

“I glimpsed a rat sorting the recyclable materials.” (I have a great respect for rats who have such an active concern for our environment.)

(Examples retrieved from Eddie Snipes 2011)

Like most languages, English has some very specific rules about word placement. Breaking these rules can lead to some disastrous, if not humorous, misunderstandings. Native speakers of a language learn most of the rules for placement of modifiers as they learn the language but probably cannot describe the rules to anyone else. For example, consider the phrase, my beautiful curly-haired Goldendoodle; native speakers know that it would sound odd to say, my curly-haired beautiful Goldendoodle. The rules for ordering those words are complex and would be difficult to grasp for an English as a second language learner. However, sometimes native speakers also get in trouble with the placement of some modifiers. Such modifier errors are called dangling, misplaced, and squinting modifiers.

Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers; they are words, phrases, or clauses that describe or limit the meaning of other single words or phrases. Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns, and adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. The referent is a word that an adjective or adverb describes. In this sentence The lush green grass appeared overnight, the, lush and green are adjectives describing the referent noun grass, and overnight is an adverb describing the referent verb appeared.

Image result for green grass gif

So now you know what a modifier is; next, you should consider how to avoid errors in placing them. Using a dangling modifier is a common misstep for writers. It frequently occurs when a writer uses passive voice but also happens in other sentences when the referent is missing. Most often, but not always, a dangling modifier comes at the beginning of a sentence: “Coming out of the market, the bananas fell on the pavement.” (Example retrieved from The Writing Center, UW-Madison 2009)

In this sentence, it seems like the bananas were coming out of the market. The corrected sentence should be Coming out of the market, I dropped the bananas on the pavement. Note that not only do the words need to be rearranged but also the referent pronoun I needs to be added.

Image result for banana gif

Misplaced modifiers happen when a modifying adjective or adverb is not near its referent. One of the more famous examples of this error comes from comedian Groucho Marx who said, “One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got into my pajamas, I’ll never know.” There’s an image that I want to get out of my head. Here are some other examples:

Confusing: “Hopping briskly through the vegetable garden, I saw a toad.” (My neighbors are beginning to talk about my gardening activities.)

Corrected: I saw a toad hopping briskly through the vegetable garden.

Confusing: “I gave olives to my friend that I stabbed with my fork.” (He thought that was a high price to pay for some olives.)

Corrected: I gave my friend olives that I stabbed with my fork.

(Examples retrieved from Eddie Snipes 2011)

The third modifier error is called a squinting modifier. It’s hard to tell whether the word/phrase modifies the word before or after it.

Confusing: “We cannot accept completely illogical reasoning.”

Corrected: “We cannot completely accept illogical reasoning.” OR

“We cannot accept reasoning that is completely illogical.”

(Example retrieved from ProofreadNow 2015)

There are two separate meanings for the confusing sentence, so there are two separate corrections.

Image result for modifier

Putting modifiers in their proper place can be challenging. The humorous blunders that occur with dangling, misplaced, and squinting modifiers make for interesting examples of what not to do. The skilled writer is familiar with these missteps and can avoid or correct them with ease.

-Diane Repass

May 3, 2017

The Challenges of Learning English

Who Says It’s Easy to Learn English?

Many, if not most, of us have studied a foreign language in school. You studied pronunciation, vocabulary, idioms, grammar, and syntax. You probably attempted stilted conversations with classmates and the instructor, and you may have even watched movies and read a book in the language. For some this came easy, but for others it was painful. And you left the classroom and spoke in English until the next class. Many language learners are immersed in a language; that is, they live in the area or country where the language they are learning is spoken. Unless there is a community of countrymen, they must speak the second language if there is to be any communication. It takes a particular kind of courage, and it takes hard work. I can appreciate how painful it is because I have studied a language in another country. I was able to connect with other English speakers during parts of the day, and it was such a relief to be able to occasionally speak without the exhausting mental calisthenics that come with speaking a second language. I have also taught English as a Second Language and know how hard it is to convince students to speak only in English during class, let alone outside of class. It is hard to learn any language, and English is certainly no exception.

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Many scholars say that English has the largest vocabulary of any language. While many disagree, it is safe to say that it does have a high number of words. It has shamelessly borrowed from many languages; it is a Germanic language, but French and Latin have contributed many words, as has Greek. Foreign words lead to problems in rules for spelling and pronunciation, and for every rule, there is a myriad of exceptions.

Spelling is a problem for native speakers, let alone second language learners. For example, there are many words with an f sound but with variant spellings. Sometimes the f sound is spelled with a single f and sometimes with a double f as in cliff or cuff. Ancient Greek has given us words that use ph as an f (elephant, phone). Some words use –ugh that sounds like f, too (enough, laugh), which makes matters even more confusing. Then, English has many homophones, words that sound the same and may or may not be spelled differently, such as feet and feat or jeans and genes.

Pronouncing words can be tricky, too. There are heteronyms, words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently, such as affect (ehFEKT- to change) and affect (AFFekt- a person’s feelings or emotions) (Heteronym Homepage). Who wouldn’t be confused by such roadblocks? We looked at words with f sounds that are spelled –ugh. Think about the word through which has the ugh that sounds like the word threw, or bough which sounds like bow (to bend the knee or body). Many words have silent letters, as with silent e (e.g. bake). Dialects add another obstacle to language learners who hear words pronounced differently by various groups. I grew up in Michigan pronouncing coupon as cyoopon, while many people in my new home state of Iowa pronounce it as coopon.

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English verbs do follow a prescribed system, but some oddities are confusing. Two-word, or phrasal, verbs are most often idioms that cannot be understood by looking at the meaning of each word individually. For example, consider cut (it) up, look over, come across, or call (it) off. Present tense verbs are used to mean several different things. In addition to indicating an action taking place at the present time, they indicate a habitual action (e.g. The sun sets in the west.), a repeated action (e.g. Birds migrate south in the winter.), or an action that is always true (e.g. Temperatures turn colder in winter for northern climates.)

Unlike many languages with nouns that are masculine, feminine, or neuter, English articles (i.e. a, an, the) do not indicate gender. According to Muriel Harris in Prentice Hall Reference Guide to Grammar and Usage, generally, a and an are used to indicate an unspecified noun (e.g. My dog Cricket saw a cat in the neighbor’s yard.), while the is used to indicate someone/thing more specific (e.g. The Malaysian student prepared a fabulous meal.). Okay, that wasn’t so hard, but here come all the add-ons: a) use the when talking about a specific representative of a category, but use no article when the meaning is “all” or “in general” (e.g. Pets are our friends.); or b) when names are plural, use the (e.g. the Netherlands). There are many more rules and exceptions; native speakers learn these rules as they learn to speak, but they would be hard-pressed to explain them to someone else.

So far, we have looked at only a few of the many pitfalls of learning English. There are so many more, which are complex and challenging, like word order or idioms/slang. Many people criticize foreigners and immigrants for not learning English immediately upon arrival, but it is not easy, nor are all people proficient at learning a second language. It takes time, effort, and a bit of courage.

www.giphy.com

-Diane Repass│Diane is a retired tenured assistant professor from The University of Dubuque and now a beloved writer for Plaid Swan Inc. She received her M.A. from The University of Northern Iowa in Cedar Falls, Iowa.

April 10, 2017

Voice Choice

When my husband asked me last night about what I was writing, I told him and was amazed that one person could crinkle up his face so completely. So, the gauntlet was thrown; I had to take a technical topic and turn it into an invigorating discussion.

Some years ago I read a book entitled Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me). This title is a good example of what this article will explore: voice choice as an element of writing style. It is written in the passive voice, which is frequently maligned by educators and writers. Why would someone choose this for a book title? What other choices are there, and how and when do you use each choice?

Voice in writing can either be active or passive depending on whether the writer wants to emphasize the subject (the doer of the action, active voice) or the object (the receiver of the action, passive voice). Our book title is passive because the emphasis is on mistakes, the receiver of the action. Who didn’t make mistakes? Me, the doer of the action. We can turn that sentence around to make me the emphasis (active voice): I did not make mistakes. However, the original phrase in the title is said to be the “king of non-apologies” (National Public Radio, It’s True: ‘Mistakes Were Made’ is the King of Non-Apologies, 2013) and a phrase used by President Grant, Nixon spokesman Ron Ziegler, President Reagan, President Clinton, Governor Chris Christie, and President G. W. Bush to leave the blame to some nebulous, unknown actor (it wasn’t I who made mistakes, but I’m not going to say who did). Great choice for a book title.

Some sentences are neither active nor passive because there is no object or receiver of some action. For example, the sentence I slept for ten hours last night is not active or passive because nothing and no one received the action of sleeping. Active voice follows the pattern Subject-Verb-Direct Object as in these sentences:

I (subject) eat (verb) sushi (object) as often as possible.

My dog (subject) dug (verb) holes (object) in our yard.

To change them to passive voice,

Make the direct object the subject of the sentence.
Change the verb to a passive verb: a form of to be (am, is, are, was, were, been, be, being) + the past participle of the verb (for example: shaken, walked, or done).
Optionally (and often deleted), put the subject of the active sentence in a phrase that begins with

Sushi (former object) was eaten (verb) as often as possible by me (former subject).

Holes (former object) in the yard were dug (verb) by my dog (former subject).

Note: These passive sentences sound awkward, which is one reason why passive voice does not always work.

Educators frequently discourage the use of the passive voice. There are some good reasons for this, but there are also some times when the passive voice works rather well in writing. Some people call the use of passive a mistake; that is a myth. It has its place, but there are some strong arguments for the use of active voice:

Active voice uses slightly fewer words – being concise is always an advantage.
Dangling modifiers are more often a problem with the passive voice. A dangling modifier occurs when a phrase is not near the noun, pronoun, or verb that it describes/modifies. For example,

Having eaten a full meal, the television was turned on to the football game.

It sounds like the television ate a full meal. I don’t think so.

Passive voice often sounds very impersonal and doesn’t make clear the actor; for example,

Passive: The prisoners were subjected to hideous medical experiments.

I would like to know who the perpetrator was:

Active: Dr. Josef Mengele subjected prisoners to hideous medical experiments.

On the other hand, passive voice is sometimes appropriate.

Many people believe that in scientific and technical writing the passive voice is appropriate because it can focus on the process or materials rather than the actor/doer.

Flower petals were added to the chemical mixture to create a new exotic perfume scent.

Sometimes the direct object of a sentence is the focus and therefore more important, especially when we know who the actor is or if the actor is unimportant.

Six track and field records were broken at last Saturday’s meet.

There are many more arguments for the use of active voice than there are arguments for the use of passive voice, but it is helpful to have some familiarity with the steps to turn active to passive or vice versa because the appropriate choice of voice can be a positive aid in creating a lively writing style.

-Diane Repass

February 13, 2017

Grammar Nazis and Language Evolution

I have a degree in English, but I break grammar rules. Not on purpose, but accidentally even though I know better (and use sentence fragments for effect). Horror of horrors, I have split an infinitive and ended a sentence with a preposition. I have to stop to think about whether I should say lay or lie, or who or whom. I hardly ever correct anyone except my husband, who reminds me that I have said that the goal is always communication. I am not a Grammar Nazi; however, I believe that Standard English has its purpose, and I also believe that language is constantly evolving so that grammar rules taught fifty or sixty years ago may not apply today.

We all speak some form of dialect. I grew up in Michigan and moved to Iowa to go to college and then stayed on for the next 50+ years. I pronounced the word coupon as “kyoo-pon” and thought that Iowans were all mispronouncing it as “koo-pon”. I used the word pop for a soft drink but thought it odd that some people used soda instead. Dialects represent regional, social and professional varieties of a language, and they should be accorded respect in that they are complex language systems with their own set of rules. On the other hand, Standard English (SE) is also a dialect, but it is the form of language that is taught in English classes and most often used by newscasters and journalists. It is often called a more formal usage of English. I cringe a little when it is defined as the language used by educated speakers and writers because it makes Standard English sound aloof and doesn’t do credit to the rich dialects we hear in the United States.

While I believe arguments can be made to support both Standard and Nonstandard English, I believe that there is much to support studying and using SE in more formal and business applications. Like it or not, many judge people by the way they speak. Just like dress standards, which have changed dramatically in my lifetime, or rules of etiquette, which have also evolved and changed, language use suggests level of education and knowledge. Most every language has a standard and many dialects. We all know hundreds of grammar rules for the dialect we speak, so it isn’t a leap to learn the rules of SE. Also, if there is a standard, it can be the common language that is more universally understood. Some countries have language academies or institutes for language planning (i.e. France and Malaysia) that prescribe what rules are to be followed and what changes are acceptable. American English does not have such an institute, but there are thousands of people who study the language and describe what the speakers know about it. Teaching what is known about the rules of the language can slow down the inevitable changes that language undergoes.

Grammar Nazis rebel when language changes. The rules are the rules and are never to be broken, but in truth language is ever changing. There are many rules I learned in school that are no longer used today.

The rule for the use of shall vs. will has changed. It used to be that we said I/we shall, while will was only used with you, he, she, it, or they. Except in some legal documents, shall is hardly used anymore in American English.
The past tense of dive is dived, but today dove is equally acceptable and probably more common.
The distinction between who and whom will probably be gone in the foreseeable future.
Ending a sentence in a preposition is not uncommon, and actually it seems like a ridiculous rule which was created when linguists wanted English to be more like Latin which would never end a sentence in a preposition. Besides English is not a Latin language; it is Germanic.

In all writing or speaking, the first consideration should be the audience. Business writing, job interviews and public speaking call for more Standard English choices, but blogs, emails and social media posts can be less formal and rule-governed. Respect should be given to dialects, but the standard still has its place.

-Diane Repass

The Em Dash

The En Dash

The Hyphen

Our language is evolving.

Enter: Slang Words

Even sentence structure is changing.

Why all the changes?

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